"The difference between the hsing-i I passed on to you and what I taught military officers during the war is significant. You learned more and had more time to perfect the art."

It was 1988. The person speaking, was my teacher Col. Chang Hsiang Wu. His statement, made in response to a question I asked about the Chinese army's use of hsing-i during the Second World War took me completely by surprise.

I had recently been contracted to teach close combat to army reconnaissance instructors. Col. Chang and his wife Major Chang Yen Ying (a senior student of Du Shen Wu and former close combat instructor for the Chinese commandos) were giving me advice on how to structure the program. During the conversation Col. Chang began sharing some of his thoughts and experiences as they related to his hsing-i tenure in the military. He also, to my delight, expanded upon aspects of strategy (both in combat and training) that make hsing-i such an effective system.

Known primarily as an empty hand system, hsing-i does in fact utilize several traditional weapons. Its reputation as a deadly fighting art was so widely respected that in the 1920's and 1930's, its armed and unarmed methods were adopted into many Chinese military training programs. Masters such as Sun Lu Tang; Wang Hsiang Chai and Huang Po-Nien all contributed to the military use of hsing-i. Probably the most prestigious military group to train in hsing-i was the Central Military Academy of China at Nanjing. Their chief hsing-i instructor was my teacher, Colonel Chang Hsiang Wu.

In addition to empty hand skills, the military frequently placed emphasis on traditional weapons such as sword and spear. However, in keeping with the modernization of the Chinese army, these weapon skills were adapted for use with more contemporary counterparts. Rifle and bayonet replaced short spear. Traditional saber and sword forms were transposed for use with either a one or two handed Western style cavalry or infantry officer's sword.

The first thing Col. Chang did was to clarify his opening comment to me. He explained that when preparing for war, training is accelerated. At Nanjing, the "bare hand" or "empty hand" techniques were taught in three stages over a period of one or two months. These stages, in order of training, were: forms and basics; applications/ prearranged sparring and; free fighting. (Hsing-i rifle and bayonet techniques in other branches of the army follow the same training format but were divided into four stages.) Not all hsing-i forms were taught. Because of limited time, emphasis was placed solely upon understanding the five fists; two man and linking form; and their practical application. Why? Because these movements form the foundation of hsing-i. It is through a strong understanding of these basics that one is able to transform a single strike into a killing blow. It is also from these same basics that all weapons' applications evolve.

As is the case in all military training, development of the group takes precedence over development of the individual. This may be contrary to our notion in martial arts of "perfection of self" but it is in perfect keeping with conditions found in war or military operations. All officers were expected to obtain the same high-level of proficiency at the same rate as their classmates. Training was particularly demanding as survival and success in battle was predicated upon each man being able to "hold his own". One weak link in the chain would result in failure and death. Those that fell behind, "suffered the consequences" or in Col. Chang's ominous words "they kept up or else". (He refrained from elaborating on what "or else" entailed. He did however emphasize that full-contact free fighting was part of the training.)

Colonel Chang was quick to point out that although hsing-i training was condensed, it none-the- less followed the "orthodox"method of instruction. Some contemporaries of Col. Chang (such as Wang Hsiang Chai) who taught in other branches of the army first broke the fist instruction down into three parts. Standing post (meditation); stances and stepping; and hand techniques were all taught separately. Only later were they recombined into their complete forms. At the Central Military Academy the fists were all taught as complete actions. (Which incidentally, is the manner in which I received my instruction.) This allowed the officer to quickly develop a proper sense of timing, weight shifting, and stability, thereby accelerating his learning process. Colonel Chang did not deride Wang and others like him for their segmented approach to teaching the end result was more or less the same. However, given the time restraint, learning all movements together was faster and better served the military and the soldier's purpose.

The advantage a military art like hsing-i has over many other martial arts is that it is deceptively simple in execution (if not in concept) and direct. Additionally it follows what is often referred to as a "uniform theory" approach to training. At its simplest level, "uniform theory" allows for the direct transference of basic technique from one weapon (including empty hand) to another.

When discussing the use of a weapon, most martial artists recite the adage "a weapon is simply an extension of the body". This statement is only partially correct. If for example, your arm was as long as a spear (extension of the body) you still could not cut or penetrate your opponent as a real spear would. Therefore a more complete rendering of the principle should read: " in addition to being an extension of the body each weapon also has its own unique characteristics". In the case of the spear cutting and thrusting. In the case of the sword chopping and thrusting. Weapons also differ in length and weight. A double-edged dagger has the same blade characteristics as a sword. However, because of its shorter length the person using it has less reach. Additionally, its light weight significantly reduces its effectiveness as a chopping weapon. Uniform theory takes all this into account and utilizes a natural training progression to teach how to use body mechanics to maximize efficiency when employing any weapon.

Paralleling this is a natural progression for learning strategy of combat. This strategy makes the characteristics of any weapon immediately apparent and easily utilized. Additionally, this same strategy identifies the body's natural responses/tendencies (even in trained adversaries) and clearly shows the soldier how to exploit them to his advantage. (Col. Chang's other duty at the Academy was military strategy instructor. He taught officers how to apply the lessons of Sun Tzu to both large scale military and guerrilla warfare operations.)

In combat, it has been proven that soldiers only recall and utilize the simplest things they have been taught. High stress and physical/mental fatigue are the main contributing factors to disruption of the thought process and failure to respond in the optimum (or even correct) manner. Western military close combat systems are, by comparison to the Chinese, lax in dealing with this reality. There are many reasons why this is the case. More often than not it is because each phase of Western close combat training (e.g. empty hand; rifle and bayonet; etc.) has its own theory and manner for applying techniques. This results in several theories having to be recalled and employed in a combat situation not too realistic if we consider the need for split-second decisions in the heat of battle. Additionally a soldier may have to employ an improvised weapon not covered in close combat training (e.g. a ration tin or shoe lace). How does he deal with this type of dilemma? A study of over 1,000 documented cases of of close combat in the Vietnam conflict revealed that soldiers in these situations did not, as a whole, respond in a manner they expected or were trained to. An overriding factor was the "confusion" created by trying to recall or decide which "appropriate" course of action (read: theory) should be applied. Had they been able to rely on a few easily understood and translatable principles, the outcome (or at least the course of action) in many of these confrontations may have been different.

So why was hsing-i more "appropriate" than other martial arts for the war China was about to engage in ? Well according to Col. Chang there were several reasons:

The first and most obvious reason is that lethal close combat skills were actually needed. Modern military units (especially in the West) tend to rely on superior weaponry and fire power over "empty hand" or close combat fighting ability. Since the Chinese were usually poorly equipped they had to make up for their deficiencies in other ways. One of the ways was through the use of combat proven, lethal martial arts. Hsing-i was such an art. Another was through employing the military strategy of Sun Tzu. Bing fa and their manner of close fighting served the Chinese army well in the past and continues to do so even now in the present.

The second reason is the realization that war with Japan would occur on both a physical and spiritual level. Not only was Japan a modern and well-equipped military force, but it was also driven by their fierce spirit of bushido. China on the other hand subscribed to the Confucian precept of "jen i chih tao" the spirit of benevolent righteousness or more simply, the concept of the righteous man or hero. This concept was seen by the Chinese as being on a higher spiritual plane than that of bushido. Hsing-i helped to reinforce this Chinese idea through the use of the five element theory as it relates to the five "fists" of hsing-i.

Historically, the five element theory can be traced back to the Shang dynasty. One of its uses in hsing-i is as a means of teaching rudiments of strategy. Each fist corresponds to an element. Each element, according to the theory, is assisted or hindered by another element/fist. By applying these combinations in practice the fundamentals of attack and defense are established. Through their teaching of the five element theory instructors were able to accomplish two goals. The first is the establishment of a simple yet efficient combat strategy. The second, is the forging of a cultural/spiritual link between the modern Chinese infantry officer and the righteous warriors of ancient times. (Note: Achievement of the second goal was assisted by the physical introduction of hsing-i considered by many Chinese as an "ancient or legendary" martial art; into the realm of modern warfare.)

The third reason is the manner in which the fist forms are practiced and implemented. Initially, there are no backward /withdrawing movements. This is ideal for the military because it instills in the soldier the idea of aggressive attack. Forward movement also allows the soldier to close distance and move inside an opponent's effective fighting range. While of valuable use against a knife or short sword it is of particular advantage when dealing with a long weapon such as rifle and bayonet. (It is important that the reader understand the strategic difference between retreating and withdrawing. When retreating, your intention is simply to get away. The problem: It is difficult to defend and retreat at the same time. Withdrawing on the other hand means moving back while maintaining your defensive position. In hsing-i withdrawal is performed either to draw the opponent forward while setting him up for a counterattack or; to give yourself additional room to maneuver before delivering your counterattack. Hsing-i considers such withdrawal techniques secondary and concentrates on closing distance to inhibit the opponent's movement. Hsing-i does however, place emphasis on always moving from one protected position to another regardless of whether you are advancing or withdrawing.)

In addition to moving forward all five element techniques utilize continuous flowing and alternating actions. These assist the practitioner in several ways:

1. Continuous flowing enables you to incorporate your body mass while delivering the blow. For example in empty hand p'i ch'uan, momentum of the body generated in the counter-strike is capable of breaking your opponent's neck. In the saber technique of p'i ch'uan, the chopping and cutting actions of the sword are made more devastating by dropping the weight of the shoulders and arms. The result is a cut that penetrates all the way to the bone. Such a cut causes severe nerve/muscle damage; massive trauma/shock and; most likely death.

2. Continuous flowing allows combatants to move easily and steadily over uneven terrain. Steps are kept low and reinforced so that there is no over-extension. The two- fold end result is an ability to change both level and angle of attack and an ability to deliver a killing blow or at the very least, several crippling blows in quick succession. (On the battlefield techniques requiring several moves to simply "take down" an opponent are virtually useless.)

To understand how the "uniform theory" is applied consider the following examples:

Example #1 (P'i ch'uan empty hand method)